- WELCOME TO PART ONE OF THE VIDEO TUTORIAL SERIES
THAT WILL FOCUS ON CARBOHYDRATES.
THIS SERIES WILL DO A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
AND THEN WE'LL JUMP RIGHT INTO THE MONOSACCHARIDES,
THE SIMPLE SUGARS.
LET'S GET STARTED. ALL RIGHTY.
SO CARBOHYDRATES ARE POLYHYDROXY ALDEHYDES
AND POLYHYDROXY KETONES ARE COMPOUNDS
THAT YIELD THEM AFTER HYDROLYSIS.
SO THIS IS REALLY REFERRING TO THE SIMPLE SUGARS,
THE MONOSACCHARIDES.
AND THEN IN FUTURE TUTORIALS
WE'LL LOOK AT HOW THEY LINK TOGETHER
AND THAT'S WHERE THE SECOND PART OF THE STATEMENT COMES IN.
SO AT THIS POINT YOU'RE GOOD AT RECOGNIZING ALDEHYDES
AND KETONES,
SO GO AHEAD AND CIRCLE THEM IN THESE TWO MONOSACCHARIDES.
WE RECOGNIZE HERE AS THE ALDEHYDE
AND THERE IS OUR KETONE.
AND NOW WE SEE THE MANY HYDROXYL GROUPS, RIGHT,
OR ALCOHOL GROUPS.
OKAY.
WE'RE GOING TO COME BACK TO THESE SQUARES
AT THE BOTTOM OF THE PAGE.
ALL RIGHTY.
SO IF WE LOOK CLOSELY AT THESE TWO SUGARS
WE CAN COUNT THE ATOMS AND GET THEIR CHEMICAL FORMULAS
AND WE'LL NOTICE THAT THEY BOTH HAVE THE CHEMICAL FORMULA,
C6H12O6.
AND WE KNOW THAT THERE ARE ALSO, YOU KNOW,
SUGARS ARE CALLED CARBOHYDRATES.
SO LOOKING AT THIS BASIC CHEMICAL FORMULA,
I THINK IT'S PRETTY EASY TO HYPOTHESIZE
WHERE WE GET THE TERM CARBOHYDRATES.
WE SEE THAT THERE'S A COMMON FACTOR OF SIX
AND SO IF WE SIMPLIFY, WE END UP WITH CH2O, RIGHT.
SO THERE IS THE CARBO AND THEN WE HAVE THE HYDRATE.
SO THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA
OR THE SMALLEST RATIO OF THE ATOMS IN SUGAR IS CH2O.
ALL RIGHTY. NOW, OKAY.
AS WE LOOK AT ALL, YOU KNOW, AS WE GO THROUGH EVERY TOPIC,
THERE'S A ALWAYS A BUNCH OF VOCABULARY TO SORT OUT.
SO AS WITH CARBOHYDRATES, SOME IMPORTANT TERMS,
SO THE PRIMARY THING IS TO RECOGNIZE THAT CARBOHYDRATES
ARE CLASSIFIED BY THE NUMBER OF SIMPLE SUGARS BONDED TOGETHER.
SO A MONOSACCHARIDE IS JUST ANOTHER WAY
TO SAY A SIMPLE SUGAR.
ALL RIGHT.
AND THEN JUST RECOGNIZING CARBOHYDRATES AND SUGAR
ARE SYNONYMOUS AS WELL.
AND SO THEN, PRETTY STRAIGHTFORWARD,
A DI WOULD BE TWO, TWO SUGARS BONDED TOGETHER.
AND THEN OLIGO, THAT HAS, YOU KNOW,
IT DEPENDS ON WHOSE BOOK YOU'RE LOOKING,
THE DEFINITION TENDS TO GO FROM THREE TO TEN SUGARS
BONDED TOGETHER.
AND THE REASON WHY THIS COMES UP
IS WE'LL SEE THAT SUGARS OFTEN ACT AS RECEPTORS OR MARKERS
AS PART OF OTHER BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
AND THEY COME IN THESE SHORT CHAINS.
AND THEN WE'LL LOOK AT THE POLYSACCHARIDES
WHICH IS WHERE WE HAVE MORE THAN 10 SUGARS.
AND DON'T GET TOO CAUGHT UP ON THE NUMBERS HERE
FOR OLIGO AND POLY, IT REALLY VARIES ON THE SOURCE.
SO THERE'S NO CONSISTENT AGREEMENT.
SO WE CAN SEE THAT SUGARS CAN EITHER BE ALDEHYDES OR KETONES.
SO THESE WORDS SHOULD MAKE SENSE, RIGHT?
IF THE SUGAR CONTAINS AN ALDEHYDE
THEN WE CAN CALL IT AN ALDOSE.
AND IF THE SUGAR CONTAINS A KETONE WE CAN CALL IT A KETOSE.
AND THEN BIOLOGICALLY MOST OF THE SUGARS
THAT WE'RE GOING TO BE INTERESTED IN
HAVE EITHER FIVE CARBONS OR SIX CARBONS.
AND SO THESE ARE SOME PREFIXES THAT WE'VE SEEN SEVERAL TIMES
THROUGHOUT THE COURSE AND-- TILL THEY HAVE THEIR SAME RULE.
AND THEN THE OTHER THING TO KEEP IN MIND
IS WE CAN TAKE THE ALDOSE AND THE KETOSE
AND THE PENTOSE AND THE HEXOSE
AND WE CAN MIX THOSE TOGETHER TO DESCRIBE CARBOHYDRATES.
SO LET'S GO BACK UP TO THOSE TWO CARBOHYDRATES WE WERE LOOKING AT
AND USE THESE TERMS TO CHARACTERIZE THEM.
SO IN CASE YOU'RE CURIOUS THIS ACTUAL--THE ACTUAL NAME HERE
IS D-GLUCOSE AND WE'LL GET INTO THAT VERY SOON.
AND THIS IS D-FRUCTOSE.
SO THOSE WOULD BE THEIR COMMON NAMES BUT THE CLASSIFICATION
THEN IS WE WOULD SEE--OBVIOUSLY THIS IS GOING TO BE AN ALDOSE
AND THEN IF WE COUNT THE CARBONS,
ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE, SIX, RIGHT?
SO WE WOULD DESCRIBE THIS AS AN ALDOHEXOSE.
AND THEN THE FRUCTOSE,
WE SEE ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE, SIX,
WE WILL DESCRIBE IT AS A KETOHEXOSE.
SO THERE ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF HOW TO USE THOSE TERMS.
ALL RIGHTY. AND NOW, THAT'S OUR INTRODUCTION.
SO WE'LL MOVE ON TO MONOSACCHARIDES.
THERE'S QUITE A BIT TO TALK ABOUT THERE.
SO THE FIRST THING THAT WE GOT-- WE NEED TO UNDERSTAND
IS THAT WHEN WE'RE FIRST INTRODUCED
TO THE MONOSACCHARIDES, THE SIMPLE SUGARS,
WE SEE THEM IN THEIR FISCHER PROJECTION.
WE'VE BEEN INTRODUCED TO THAT BEFORE
WHERE THE HORIZONTALS ARE THE WEDGES
AND THE VERTICALS ARE THE DASHES.
AND SUGARS DO EXIST IN THIS FORM, WE REFER TO THAT--
THIS HAS LIKE THE OPEN CHAIN.
HOWEVER, THEY LIKE TO UNDERGO A REACTION WITH THEMSELVES, RIGHT?
SO WE'VE LEARNED ABOUT CONFORMERS
AND WE SEE ALL OF THESE TETRAHEDRAL CARBONS
AND WE KNOW THERE'S BENDING AND ROTATION THERE.
AND THEN WE LOOK HERE AT OUR CARBONYL CARBON
AND WE KNOW THAT IS TRIGONAL PLANAR.
AND SO WHAT HAPPENS IS THIS ALCOHOL GROUP RIGHT HERE,
THE HYDROXYL GROUP COMING OFF OF CARBON FIVE,
NOTICE THAT WE CAN TURN THIS ON ITS SIDE AND BEND IT AROUND
AND HERE IS THAT SAME OXYGEN ON CARBON FIVE.
AND HERE IS OUR CARBONYL CARBON.
AND WHAT HAPPENS IS THEY CAN UNDERGO A REACTION
TO FORM A RING.
SO HERE'S OUR ORIGINAL CARBONYL CARBON
AND THERE IS THE OXYGEN COMING OFF OF CARBON FIVE.
SO THE CARBONYL CARBON,
NOTICED HERE IT HAS A DOUBLE BOND TO A SINGLE OXYGEN.
HERE, THE CARBONYL CARBON HAS TWO SINGLE BONDS TO OXYGEN.
SO ONCE THE CARBONYL CARBON HAS TAKEN THE FORM OF THE RING
IT'S NOW CALLED THE ANOMERIC CARBON.
AND SO IT'S IMPORTANT TO RECOGNIZE THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THE CARBONYL CARBON AND THE ANOMERIC CARBON
THAT THEY'RE ONE IN THE SAME.
NOW, A CONSEQUENCE OF THIS PLANAR, GEOMETRY ON THE CARBONYL
IS THAT WHEN THE OXYGEN COMES IN,
IT COULD COME IN FROM THE BOTTOM
OR IT COULD COME IN AND REACT FROM THE TOP.
AND SO WE'LL LOOK MORE CLOSELY AT THIS CONSEQUENCE LATER
BUT FOR THIS EXAMPLE HERE, I'LL JUST POINT OUT TO YOU
THAT THE ALCOHOL MUST'VE COME IN TO THE TOP
BECAUSE THIS OXYGEN HERE GOT-- WAS--DOWN
AND WHEN THE ALCOHOL GROUP IS POINTING DOWN,
WE REFER TO THAT AS THE ALPHA POSITION.
SO WE'LL COME BACK TO THIS LATER.
BUT LET'S LOOK AT A FEW MORE THINGS
ABOUT THE MONOSACCHARIDES.
NOW, ONE THING--THE FIRST THING
IS THAT THIS IS THE HAWORTH PROJECTION.
SO THIS IS THE MOST FREQUENTLY USED FORM
THAT WE'LL SEE FOR THE RING FORM.
HOWEVER, WE CAN SEE THE CHAIR FORM.
SO DON'T LET THAT PSYCH YOU OUT.
AND IT'S IMPORTANT TO REMEMBER, RIGHT,
THAT THE SUGARS ARE CONSTANTLY GOING BACK AND FORTH
BETWEEN THE OPEN CHAIN AND THE RINGS.
SO HERE, WE HAVE THE SAME EXAMPLE.
THERE IS-- THERE'S OUR CARBONYL CARBON.
NOW, IT'S CALLED THE ANOMERIC CARBON.
WE SEE THE ALPHA POINTING-- THE OH POINTING DOWN
AND THAT'S THE ALPHA.
BUT THEN AS WE MENTIONED FROM THIS TRIGONAL PLANAR GEOMETRY
THE REACTION COULD GO THE OTHER WAY
AND SO IF WE NOTICED HERE ON OUR ANOMERIC CARBON, RIGHT,
THE CARBON THAT'S BONDED.
THE ONLY CARBON IN THE MOLECULE BONDED TO TWO OXYGENS.
WE NOW SEE THAT THE ALCOHOL GROUP,
THE HYDROXYL GROUP IS POINTING UP.
SO WHEN IT'S POINTING UP WE REFER TO IT AS BETA
AND WHEN IT'S POINTING DOWN WE REFER TO IT AS ALPHA.
SOMETIMES DEPENDING ON YOUR SOURCE WE CAN SEE THE RING FORM
WRITTEN AS GLUCOSE OR GLUCOPYRANOSE.
SO THAT'S ANOTHER THING THAT-- JUST AS YOU--
AS YOU'RE DOING YOUR STUDIES, DIFFERENT PEOPLE WILL USE
DIFFERENT DEGREES OF INFORMATION.
SO WITH THE SIX NUMBERED RING HERE WE COULD HAVE THE PYRANOSE
OR YOU MIGHT SEE IT JUST AS GLUCOSE.
REALLY, THE PYRANOSE AND THE ALPHA ARE BOTH TELLING US
THAT THE SUGAR IS IN THE RING FORM.
SO IT'S A BIT REDUNDANT
AND THAT'S WHY SOME PEOPLE LEAVE IT OFF.
IF WE SEE THE ALPHA OR THE BETA
WE KNOW WE'RE TALKING ABOUT THE RING FORM OF THE SUGAR
NOT THE OPEN CHAIN.
AND THE SAME WOULD BE HERE IN THE BETA FORM,
WE COULD SIMPLY CALL THIS BETA-D-GLUCOSE.
AND THEN WITH FRUCTOSE AND RIBOSE
THEY WILL FORM FIVE MEMBER SUGARS.
SO SOMETIMES WHEN YOU SEE THEIR NAME
YOU WILL SEE IT AS THE FURAN.
SO FOR EXAMPLE THIS SUGAR HERE WE COULD SAY IS D-FRUCTOFURANOSE
OR SIMPLY JUST D-FRUCTOSE.
SO FROM NOW ON I'LL BE USING THE SIMPLER NAMES
BUT THE USE OF THE FURAN AND THE PYRAN,
I JUST WANTED TO MAKE SURE YOU ARE AWARE OF THAT
SO IT DIDN'T THROW YOU FOR A LOOP IF YOU'RE READING SOMETHING
AND WONDERING ABOUT THAT PIECE.
OKAY. SO NOW LET'S TAKE A CLOSER LOOK AT THE ANOMERIC CARBONS.
THERE WE GO. ALL RIGHT.
SO THAT'S THE CARBON ATOM THAT'S BONDED
TO TWO DIFFERENT OXYGEN ATOMS, RIGHT.
SO IT--WHAT--IN THE OPEN CHAIN, RIGHT, IT'S THE CARBONYL CARBON,
SO, REMEMBER, RIGHT, THE ANOMERIC CARBON
FORMALLY KNOWN AS THE CARBONYL CARBON
IT'S ALWAYS GONNA HAVE THE LOWEST POSSIBLE NUMBER.
SO FOR ALDOSES, RIGHT, THAT'S GONNA BE REALLY EASY FOR ALDOSES
THEN IT WILL BE THE NUMBER ONE POSITION.
BUT FOR KETOSES, RIGHT, THEN IT WILL BE THE NUMBER TWO POSITION
FOR THE MOLECULES THAT WE'LL BE WORKING WITHIN THIS CLASS.
ALL RIGHT.
SO REMEMBER THAT WE'RE ALWAYS-- YOU KNOW, WE WANT TO STAY
WITH THE LONGEST CONTINUOUS CARBON CHAIN.
SO BE AWARE OF THAT.
AND THEN JUST TO REALLY EMPHASIZE THE DIFFERENCE HERE,
RIGHT,
THE BETA ANOMER IS WHERE THE HYDROXYL GROUP POINTS, RIGHT,
POINTS UP AND--SO ONE WAY TO THINK ABOUT THIS
IS IF YOU LIKE TO ENJOY COCKTAILS
YOU COULD THINK BOTTOMS UP, RIGHT?
SO THE BETA, SO BOTTOMS UP.
SO WHEN THE OH IS UP, A MORE-- IDEA WOULD BE TO OF BUTTERFLIES.
BUTTERFLIES FLY UP IN THE AIR,
SO THAT'LL HELP US REMEMBER THAT THE BETA ANOMER GOES UP.
ALPHA IS THEN THE OPPOSITE, RIGHT?
SO THE OH GROUP POINTS DOWN ON THE ANOMERIC CARBON
AND THEN I DON'T REALLY HAVE A BOTTOMS UP COUNTERPART
BUT ANTS, RIGHT?
ANTS ARE ON THE GROUND.
ANTS ARE DOWN LOW, RIGHT?
SO ANTS ARE LOW AND BUTTERFLIES ARE HIGH.
SO IF THAT HELPS YOU GREAT.
IF NOT, NO WORRIES. OKAY.
SO NOW LET'S TAKE A LOOK MORE CLOSELY AT THIS REACTION
TO HELP YOU UNDERSTAND WHAT'S HAPPENING, RIGHT.
SO THE MAIN FOCUS HERE IS OUR CARBONYL CARBON
IS GOING TO BECOME THE ANOMERIC CARBON.
SO KEEPING THAT CONSISTENT
AND THEN RECOGNIZING THAT IT'S THE ALCOHOL GROUP
ON CARBON NUMBER 5 THAT IS GOING TO REACT
WITH THE CARBONYL CARBON TO CLOSE THE RING.
AND, SO, I REALLY LIKE THIS FIGURE
BECAUSE IT REALLY STEPPED US THROUGH VERY CAREFULLY, RIGHT,
THAT SO WE SHOW THAT WE ROLL OVER AND THEN I THINK--
I TEND TO THINK OF THIS GROUP RIGHT HERE A BIT
AS LIKE THE FLAGPOLE, RIGHT.
SO THIS IS WHAT I--WHAT I'M TALKING ABOUT AS THE FLAGPOLE,
THAT LITTLE BRANCH COMING OFF.
ANOTHER IMPORTANT THING TO REALLY NOTICE
ABOUT THIS DIAGRAM, WELL, LET'S KEEP GOING.
RIGHT.
SO THEN HERE'S CARBON, CARBON 5 HAS THE ALCOHOL
AND SO WE'VE TALKED ABOUT HOW IT CAN GO FROM THE TOP, RIGHT?
IT CAN REACT FROM THE TOP, RIGHT?
OR THEY CAN REACT FROM THE BOTTOM.
AND, SO, THAT LEADS TO THE TWO DIFFERENT ANOMERIC CARBONS.
AND THE OTHER THING THAT I WANT TO POINT OUT AND--
IN THIS PART OF THE NOTES
IS THAT YOU CAN THINK ABOUT TIMBER TURNING TO THE SIDE
SO NOTICE ANY OF THE ALCOHOL GROUPS THAT ARE ON THE RIGHT
THEY WILL POINT DOWN.
AND THEN THIS ALCOHOL GROUP ON THE LEFT
NOTICE THAT IT POINTS UP.
SO ONE OF THE SKILLS THAT YOU WANT TO HAVE FOR THIS CHAPTER
IS YOU WANT TO BE ABLE TO TAKE A FISCHER PROJECTION
AND TURN IT INTO THE HAWORTH
AND, SO, RIGHT NOW WE'VE BEEN FOCUSING ON THE RING STRUCTURE
BUT IT'S ALSO IMPORTANT TO NOTICE THE POSITIONS
OF THE HYDROXYL GROUPS.
SO REMEMBER THAT HYDROXYL GROUPS ON THE RIGHT
WILL POINT DOWN IN THE HAWORTH
AND HYDROXYL GROUPS ON THE LEFT WILL POINT UP
AND THEN HERE IS OUR FLAGPOLE THAT--THIS IS A--
BASICALLY, IN OUR GROUP COMING OFF OF OUR RING.
AND THEN THE LAST PIECE THEN IS TO FINISH THESE NAMES.
LET'S SAY WHICH ONE IS ALPHA AND WHICH ONE IS BETA.
SO HERE WE'VE LOOKED AT THIS EXAMPLE
AND WE SEE THE OH GROUP IS POINTED UP,
SO THAT WOULD BE THE BETA ANOMER
AND HERE THE HYDROXYL GROUP IS POINTED DOWN,
SO THAT WOULD BE CALLED THE ALPHA
AND THEN LET'S LOOK A LITTLE MORE CLOSELY HERE.
WE'VE BEEN INTRODUCED TO THE IDEA OF CHIRALITY, RIGHT.
SO REMEMBER THAT A CHIRAL CARBON IS A TETRAHEDRAL CARBON, RIGHT,
BONDED TO FOUR SEPARATE GROUPS,
WELL--MAYBE DIFFERENT IS THE BEST WORD TO USE THERE,
FOUR DIFFERENT GROUPS.
AND SO IF WE LOOK AT THESE ANOMERIC CARBONS
WE CAN SEE THEY'RE BONDED TO A HYDROGEN, A HYDROXYL,
A VERY BUSY CARBON, AND THEN ETHER OXYGEN.
SO, YES, ANOMERIC CARBONS ARE CHIRAL.
OKAY.
SO LET'S LOOK AT A COUPLE MORE CONSEQUENCES NOW
OF THE OPENING AND THE CLOSING OF THE SUGAR RING.
SO ON THE--ON THE NEXT PAGE WELL LOOK AT--
WE'LL START WITH OUR D-GLUCOSE A REALLY IMPORTANT,
SUGAR THAT WE USE FOR ENERGY.
AND THE IMPORTANT THING HERE IS TO RECOGNIZE
THAT THIS IS A EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS, RIGHT,
SO WE'VE TALKED ABOUT EQUILIBRIUM BEFORE.
SO THE STRAIGHT CHAIN IS CONSTANTLY OPENING AND CLOSING
AND IT'S GOING IN BOTH THE ALPHA FORM AND THE BETA FORM.
FOR GLUCOSE, THE BETA FORM IS THE PREFERRED FORM
ENERGETICALLY.
MY GUESS WOULD BE, IT KEEPS THESE TWO HYDROXYL GROUPS
AWAY FROM EACH OTHER
WHERE THERE ARE SOME ELECTRO STATIC REPULSION
BUT--ANYWAY, THE MAIN THING TO KNOW IS THAT IF WE START,
IF YOU GO INTO THE LAB
AND YOU HAVE A PURE SAMPLE OF ONE OF THE ANOMERS
AND WE MIX IT WITH WATER WITHIN AN HOUR
WE HAVE A MIXTURE OF ALL THREE, RIGHT?
SO JUST REMEMBER THAT THIS IS AN EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS
AND WE LIKE TO USE THE WORD, RIGHT, IT'S DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM.
SO THIS OPENING AND CLOSING, IT'S LIKE GIANT JAWS.
ALL RIGHTY.
SO LET'S SEE HOW YOU DO RECOGNIZING
YOUR ANOMERIC CARBONS.
GO AHEAD AND POINT SOME ARROWS THERE.
AND REMEMBER THAT, RIGHT, THAT WE CAN JUST IGNORE THE PYRANOSE,
SO, WE COULD JUST CALL THIS OF A ALPHA D-GLUCOSE
AND BETA D-GLUCOSE.
OKAY.
AND SO THEN WE'VE ALREADY TALKED ABOUT THIS IS--
JUST REMEMBER THAT THIS IS A DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM PROCESS
AND DON'T GET PSYCHED OUT BY THE WORDS FURANOSE OR PYRANOSE.
ALL RIGHTY.
NOW LET'S TAKE A CLOSER LOOK AT THE MONOSACCHARIDES
THAT YOU'RE GONNA NEED TO KNOW FOR THIS COURSE.
SO THERE ARE A TON OF THEM OUT THERE.
YOU'RE NOT GONNA HAVE TO MEMORIZE THEM ALL
BUT THERE ARE, I THINK IT'S--
YEAH, THERE ARE FOUR THAT YOU'RE GOING TO WANT TO KNOW.
SO LET'S TAKE A LOOK AT THOSE.
AND WE'LL TALK ABOUT WHY WE NEED TO KNOW THEM.
SO GLUCOSE FIRST OF ALL, IT'S THE MOST WIDELY OCCURRING
AND IT'S OUR MAJOR ENERGY SOURCE.
SO IT'S DEFINITELY AN IMPORTANT ONE TO KNOW.
SO WHEN WE'RE WRITING THEM OUT, IT'S AN ALDOSE,
SO WE CAN PUT OUR ALDEHYDE,
AND THEN WE HAVE THE FLAGPOLE AT THE BOTTOM.
ALL RIGHT. SO THERE'S CARBON 1 AND THERE'S CARBON 6.
SO NOW WE'LL PUT THE FOUR CARBONS IN THE MIDDLE,
ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR.
OKAY.
NOW IN NATURE, D-GLUCOSE THEY'RE ALL GOING TO BE D-GLUCOSES
AND THAT MEANS THAT THE BOTTOM--
THIS BOTTOM OH IS ALWAYS ON THE RIGHT.
SO WE COULD GO AHEAD AND NUMBER THE REST OF THE CARBONS,
TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE.
SO FOR D-SUGARS THE ALCOHOL FAR THIS FROM THE CARBONYL
WILL ALWAYS BE ON THE RIGHT.
AND IN NATURE THAT'S THE WAY THE NATURE MAKE SUGARS.
NOW WE WANT TO PUT IN THE REMAINING SUGARS,
SO WE GOT TO MEMORIZE THEM.
WELL, TO ME MEMORIZING IS KIND OF DRUDGERY
AND SO I THINK OF IT LIKE MARCHING.
AND SO IF WE MARCH ALONG RIGHT, LEFT, RIGHT, WE HAVE D-GLUCOSE.
AND THEN THE OTHER SIDE ARE JUST THE HYDROGENS.
NOW TO MAKE THIS IN A RING IT COULD BE REALLY HELPFUL
I THINK WE'LL TRY TO PUT SOME GREEN IN HERE.
WE WANT TO DISTINGUISH THE ALCOHOL GROUP
COMING OFF OF CARBON 5,
BECAUSE REMEMBER THAT IS THE OXYGEN
THAT'S GOING TO CLOSE THE RING.
SO WE KNOW THAT THE SUGARS GONNA MAKE A SIX-MEMBERED RING,
SO WE CAN GO AHEAD AND DRAW THAT OUT.
AND THEN REMEMBERING THAT ONE OF THE--ONE OF THE SIX ATOMS
IS THE OXYGEN COMING OFF OF CARBON 5.
SO HERE IS OUR CARBON 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, OH,
AND THEN HERE IS OUR FLAGPOLE.
SO I TEND TO JUST DRAW IT LIKE THIS,
A LITTLE LESS DETAIL THAN ON THE PREVIOUS PAGE.
ALL RIGHTY. SO WE'VE TAKEN CARE OF OUR CARBON CHAIN.
HERE IS OUR ANOMERIC CARBON.
NOW, WE'VE BEEN ASKED TO DRAW THE ALPHA, RIGHT?
SO ANTS ARE DOWN LOW, WE PUT THE HYDROXYL GROUP DOWN LOW.
TO BE CLEAR, I'LL JUST PUT THE HYDROGEN POKING UP.
ALL RIGHTY. NOW REMEMBER, TIMBER.
SO ALL OF THE HYDROXYL GROUPS TO THE RIGHT
ARE GONG TO POINT DOWN,
SO WHEN WE GET TO CARBON TWO,
THE HYDROXYL GROUP IS ON THE RIGHT.
SO IT POINTS DOWN WHEN WE GET TO CARBON THREE, IT'S ON THE LEFT.
SO IT POINTS UP, AND THEN CARBON FOUR IS DOWN,
WE'VE ALREADY TAKEN CARE OF CARBON FIVE AND CARBON SIX
IS OUR FLAGPOLE.
SO THIS IS THE SKILL THAT YOU WAN TO BRING TO QUIZZES
AND EXAMS IS THAT YOU CAN GO FROM THE STRAIGHT CHAIN
TO THE RING.
SO WE'LL PRACTICE THAT A COUPLE OF TIMES
SO THAT YOU FEEL CONFIDENT.
GALACTOSE IS ANOTHER SUGAR THAT YOU WANT TO MEMORIZE,
IT'S WIDELY DISTRIBUTED IN PLANTS AND PECTINS, MILK, SUGAR
AND IT'S ANOTHER IMPORTANT BIOCHEMICAL SUGAR.
NOW THE IMPORTANT THING TO NOTICE ABOUT GALACTOSE IS--
IT'S A C4 DIASTEREOMER OF GLUCOSE.
NOW THIS TERM, I WILL DEFINE FOR YOU VERY SOON
BUT THE MAIN THING TO KEEP IN MIND
IS THE ONLY DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GLUCOSE
AND GALACTOSE IS CARBON FOUR.
SO ONCE WE'VE MEMORIZED THE STRUCTURE FOR GLUCOSE,
WE JUST HAVE TO KNOW-- OH YEAH, GALACTOSE.
WE JUST SWITCHED CARBON FOUR.
SO WE'LL GO THROUGH THE WHOLE PROCESS AGAIN
TO MAKE SURE YOU FEEL COMFORTABLE WITH IT,
SO RIGHT SO WE HAVE OUR CARBONYL CARBON
AND WE'LL HAVE THE FOUR CARBONS IN THE MIDDLE
AND THEN THERE WILL BE CARBON SIX, OUR FLAGPOLE.
SO THERE WILL-- THERE'S OUR CARBONYL CARBON.
CARBON ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE.
MIGHT AS WELL COUNT SIX, OKAY.
SO REMEMBER THIS IS--IT'S ALWAYS GOING TO BE A D-SUGAR
SO THE ALCOHOL GROUP ON THE BOTTOM CARBON
ALWAYS GOES TO THE RIGHT BECAUSE IT WILL BE A D-SUGAR
AND THEN WE'RE GOING TO MARCH ALONG, RIGHT?
BUT CARBON FOUR IS WHERE WE HAVE THE DIFFERENCE,
SO NOW IT'S GOING TO BE LEFT, LEFT, RIGHT.
SO WE--NOW, WE SUCCESSFULLY DRAWN THE STRUCTURE
FOR GALACTOSE
AND WE'LL GO THROUGH THE PROCESS AGAIN.
WE'RE GOING TO MAKE A SIX, RIGHT,
IT'S GOING TO FORM A SIX NUMBERED RING.
THE ALCOHOL GROUP ON CARBON FIVE COMES IN TO CLOSE THE RING,
REACTING WITH THE ANOMERIC CARBON AND SO HERE,
WE'LL AGAIN NUMBER OUR CARBONS ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE
AND HERE'S OUR FLAGPOLE COMING UP.
THAT WOULD GIVE US OUR SIX CARBONS.
SO WE'VE TAKEN CARE OF OUR CARBON BACKBONE.
THIS TIME WE WERE ASKED TO DRAW BETA, RIGHT?
SO BUTTERFLIES FLY IN THE SKY,
SO WE'LL PUT OUR OH GROUP UP JUST TO BE CLEAR,
WE'LL SHOW THE HYDROGEN DOWN AND NOW WE'LL LOOK,
SO CARBON TWO IS ON THE RIGHT, IT POINTS DOWN.
CARBON THREE IS ON THE LEFT, IT GOES UP.
CARBON FOUR IS ON THE LEFT, IT ALSO GOES OUT.
SO THERE WE GO,
WE NOW HAVE SHOWN THE INTERCONVERSION OF GALACTOSE
FROM THE OPEN CHAIN TO THE RING.
ALL RIGHTY.
SO FRUCTOSE IS ANOTHER IMPORTANT SUGAR FOR US TO WORK WITH.
AND IT'S WORTH TAKING SOME TIME TO GO THROUGH THE PROCESS,
ONE LESS TIME WITH FRUCTOSE BECAUSE IT'S A KETOSE
AND SO THAT SHOWS UP A LITTLE DIFFERENTLY.
SO LET'S PRACTICE THAT ONE TOGETHER
AND THEN AT THAT POINT YOU'LL ALL BE EXPERTS.
ALL RIGHTY.
SO REMEMBERING, SO FRUCTOSE IS A KETOSE
AND I THINK WE'VE ALL HEARD OF HIGH FRUCTOSE CORN SYRUP,
THERE'S ALSO--IT'S ALSO FOUND IN HONEY, IN TABLE SUGAR,
AS PART OF THE DISACCHARIDE, SUCROSE.
ALL RIGHTY.
SO THIS IS A LITTLE DIFFERENT
BECAUSE NOW WE'RE GOING TO HAVE TWO FLAGPOLES
BECAUSE WE HAVE A ALCOHOL AT THE END OF THE CHAIN
AND THEN WE HAVE OUR KETONE.
SO THEN WE'LL ONLY HAVE THREE BRANCHES COMING OFF
AND THEN WE'LL HAVE OUR SECOND FLAGPOLE AT THE END.
SO THIS IS WHERE WE HAVE TO PAY ATTENTION TO THE NUMBERING,
RIGHT?
WE WANT TO NUMBER THE FULL CONTINUOUS CARBON CHAIN,
SO THE CARBONYL CARBON IS NOW AT CARBON TWO, RIGHT?
SO IT'S STILL GOING TO BE D-FRUCTOSE,
SO THAT BOTTOM HYDROXYL GROUP IS ALWAYS ON THE RIGHT.
AND NOW WE CAN USE OUR GLUCOSE MODEL, RIGHT?
SO WE'RE GOING TO MARCH ALONG, RIGHT, LEFT AND WE'RE DONE.
SO FOR ME IT WAS THIS REALLY HELPFUL, ONCE I KNEW GLUCOSE
AND THEN I COULD REFER EVERYTHING TO GLUCOSE,
IT MADE THINGS SIMPLER SO IF THAT WORKS FOR YOU, AWESOME.
OTHERWISE, COME UP WITH YOUR OWN TECHNIQUE AND SHARE IT WITH ME
SO I CAN HELP OTHER STUDENTS.
SO IT'S STILL GOING TO BE THE OXYGEN COMING OFF OF CARBON FIVE
BUT NOW IT'S REACTING AT CARBON TWO.
SO WE END UP WITH A FIVE NUMBERED RING INSTEAD.
SO HERE'S THE OXYGEN COMING OFF OF CARBON FIVE.
IT'S GOING TO REACT WITH CARBON TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE.
SO I'LL GO AHEAD AND NUMBER THIS,
SO HERE IS OUR ANOMERIC CARBON,
SO THIS IS CARBON TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE.
SO WE HAVE QUITE A FEW CARBONS MISSING
FROM OUR HAWORTH PROJECTION.
SO IF WE LOOK WHAT ELSE IS COMING OFF OF CARBON TWO,
WELL, WE HAVE A FLAGPOLE.
SO WE CAN PUT THIS UP HERE
AND THEN WE HAVE COMING OFF OF CARBON FIVE,
WE HAVE OUR OTHER FLAGPOLE
SO NOW WE WOULD HAVE OUR ONE AND OUR SIX
AND THEN I KNEW TO POINT,
SO THIS FLAGPOLE WE HAVE TO PAY ATTENTION
BECAUSE IT-- WE HAVE THE ALPHA ANOMER,
WE KNOW TO PUT OUR HYDROXYL GROUP DOWN
BECAUSE ANTS ARE ON THE GROUND, ANTS LOW.
SO FOR THE ALPHA ANOMER, WE PUT THE ALCOHOL GROUP DOWN
AND THEN THE CH2OH GROUP, OUR FLAGPOLE POINTS UP.
FOR THE REST OF THE ALCOHOLS, RIGHT,
WHEN WE GET TO CARBON THREE, WE SEE IT'S ON THE LEFT.
IF IT'S ON THE LEFT, IT POINTS UP.
IF IT'S ON THE RIGHT IT POINTS DOWN, SO THERE WE GO.
WE HAVE FINISHED THE STRUCTURE FOR ALPHA D-FRUCTOSE.
SO AT THIS POINT WE'VE BEEN THROUGH THE PROCESS
SEVERAL TIMES, SO FOR RIBOSE, I'M NOT GOING TO GO THROUGH IT
SO IN SUCH DETAIL, RIBOSE IS A BIG DEAL
BECAUSE WHEN WE GET TO DNA AND RNA,
RIBOSE IS AN IMPORTANT COMPONENT,
IT'S ALSO FOUND IN ATP AND COENZYME A.
SO RIBOSE IS THE TYPICAL SUGAR AND SO THERE WE SEE,
WE COULD DESCRIBE IT, RIGHT?
THERE WE SEE THE ALDEHYDE,
SO WE COULD DESCRIBE RIBOSE AS AN ALDO, RIGHT?
AND THEN WE WILL GET THE CARBONS
ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE, RIGHT,
SO IT WOULD BE ALDOPENTOSE.
AND SO RIBONUCLEIC ACIDS, WE HAVE THE TRADITIONAL SUGAR
WHERE WE HAVE ALL THE ALCOHOL GROUPS,
NOTICE FOR DNA IT'S DEOXYRIBOSE, RIGHT,
SO IT MEANS LIKE TWO DEOXY,
SO WE LOST THE HYDROXYL GROUP AT CARBON NUMBER TWO.
AND SO LO AND BEHOLD, RIGHT,
IF WE LOOK HERE, ONE, TWO, THREE, FOUR, FIVE.
WHEN WE LOOK AT CARBON TWO,
NOW WE SEE THAT IT LOST ITS HYDROXYL GROUP,
SO THIS WILL BE THE RIGHT--
THE FIVE CARBON SUGAR DERIVATIVE THAT WE SEE WITH DNA.
SUGARS ARE VERY FASCINATING,
WE JUST BARELY GET TO SCRATCH THE SURFACE,
SO HERE IS OUR BUDDY GLUCOSE AND WE CAN COMPARE IT TO--
IF YOU HEAR ABOUT LIKE GLUTAMATE--GLUCONATE, YEAH.
SORRY, I GOT TONGUE TIED, RIGHT.
NOTICE HERE IS OUR FLAGPOLE,
WE CAN SEE THAT WE CAN OXIDIZE THAT SUGAR
OR NOTICE THAT WE CAN TAKE RIGHT AT THAT CARBON TWO POSITION,
WE CAN SUBSTITUTE IT FOR AN AMINE OR AN AMIDE.
SO THERE'S GLUCOSAMINE, PEOPLE WILL TAKE THAT FOR THEIR JOINTS
OR N-ACETYL, BETAT D-GLUCOSAMINE.
SO WE'LL--FROM THE SUGARS,
WE CAN TAKE OUR FUNCTIONAL GROUP REACTIVITY
AND WE LEARN ABOUT OTHER WAYS TO CONVERT THE SUGARS, OKAY.
WELL, THAT WAS A LONG TUTORIAL
BUT WE COVERED A LOT OF REALLY IMPORTANT INFORMATION.
SO IT'S--IT WOULD BE A GREAT IDEA RIGHT NOW
TO TAKE A FEW STRAIGHT CHAIN SUGARS
AND CONVERT THEM INTO THE HAWORTH PROJECTIONS
AND PRACTICE WORKING WITH THE ALPHA AND BETA ANOMERS,
GOOD LUCK.